The French Revolution (1789-94) [F 1] [F 2] destroyed the old social order in the name of freedom, equality and fraternity and marked the beginning of the rise of the middle class. It was followed by the ascent of Napoleon who became Emperor in 1804. His armies dominated Europe and involved Britain in several wars from 1793 to1815(Battle of Waterloo).

In the meanwhile England was radically transformed by the Industrial Revolution [I 1] [I 2] [I 3] [S 1] [S 2] [S 3] which caused great social unrest among the working class. It generated violent class conflicts between employers and workers, most notably in the Luddite Riots [I 1] [I 2]of 1811-12 when textile workers in the North of England attacked the machinery which had put them out of work.

In England Radicalism developed on the basis of French model. Radicals thought that parliament should represent people and not property.-owners as the Tories claimed. The Tory government, which had power for most of the period, fought radicalism through restrictions on freedom of speech and association and through the use of secret agents and the armed forces. A clash between government and reformers was inevitable. It came with the Peterloo Massacre of 1819 in which 15 people were killed and many were wounded.

In the 1820s radicalism became less stronger than the previous period. However, the demand for parliamentary reform was met in the First Reform Act [I 1]of 1832 which extended the right to vote to the middle-class men and made weaker the power of the landlords and aristocracy.

Finally, in the Romantic period, the territorial expansion slowed down. The loss of the 13 American colonies gave the British the distaste for colonies. But as soon as the Industrial revolution required the development of more overseas markets, England was ready to have new territories in the interest of its commerce.