The end of the Wars of the Roses, which marked the transition from the Middle Ages to the Renaissance, brought about a lot of social and political changes. The nobles, most of whom had been killed during the wars or had lost their fortunes, saw their influence considerably reduced. The new merchant class and the landowners in the country asked for and obtained more participation in government affairs. Gunpowder became more and more frequently used in warfare, thus accelerating the end of the feudal system (the castle was no longer sufficient to defend people, who began to look for protection inside the walls of the town).
The discovery of America in 1492 marked the beginning of a lot of geographical explorations, which modified the conception of the world up to then. The necessity of withstanding the claims of France and Spain upon the English throne led the Tudors to adopt a policy of balance of power, which gave England an important role in European politics. The Reformation and England’s consequent separation from Rome and Italy, affected her literary production by imbuing it with a more Calvinistic and deeply religious spirit.
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The crowning of Elizabeth was welcomed as a return to stability after the short, tragic reign of Bloody Mary. The English needed order above all; Elizabeth, with her ability and courage, was able to give them more than forty years of relative peace and prosperity.[I1] [E1]
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England began to change from an agricultural into a commercial and industrial country; Protestant weavers fleeing to the island from France and the Netherlands, where they were persecuted, introduced new methods of weaving; so new industries were established, which partially solved the problem of unemployment caused by enclosures and wide spread sheep-rearing. Private enterprise was encouraged and new Merchant Companies were chartered.
Overseas trading was fostered, which laid the foundation for future colonial expansion.
There was more unity and harmony under Elizabeth than before: in spite of class stratification anybody could frequent the same places of entertainment, whether it was a cockpit or a theatre.
The merchants and the gentry (country nobility) had grown in importance, thanks also to the purchase of the monastic estates taken over by the Crown after the schism. Moreover, the defeat of the Invincible Armada gave the English a sense of national consciousness and patriotism unknown before.
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Yet, the transition from the Middle Ages to the Renaissance had not yet been completed and England was still suffering from deep conflicts. The country was a melting pot where Anglicans coexisted with Catholics and Puritans, where superstition survived alongside Bacon’s scientific studies, where the last sparks of feudalism had not yet been put out by the rise of capitalism.
By the end of the century, Elizabeth’s “Merry England” began to decline. The question of the succession to the throne aroused confusion within the aristocracy, and the choice of James Stuart did not prove a happy one. The mood of the country changed. The religious tolerance, the social content and the enthusiasm that had marked the early years of Elizabeth’s reign were replaced by dissatisfaction and disappointment. The clash between Catholics and Puritans created turmoil and dissent, and the king ended by losing the favour and confidence of his subjects.
Moreover, new scientific discoveries were contesting the traditional medieval beliefs. In the field of medicine and astronomy, new studies were revolutionizing the old theories which were now being opposed by the earliest investigations in the field of anatomy and by the studies of Galileo (1564-1642) and Kepler (1571-1630): the earth was no longer at the centre of the universe but was governed by scientific laws and not by divine intelligences.
Compare the Ptolamaic world-system with the Copernican world-system.
